PREHISTORY
Denmark's history began with the first land settlement 12,500 years ago. Temperatures began to warm the land, so it began to attract many settlers.
Paleolithic Era
The warmer climate led to reindeer appearing in the land, which led to reindeer hunters to hunt them for meat. This led to the establishment of a hunting-gathering lifestyle for the settlers. To catch their prey, the settlers created bows and arrows as their weapons.
The settlers also cultivated a religious system known as shamanism. This belief system claims that forces and sprits control nature.
Mesolithic Era
The Mesolithic Era began in 9300 BCE. Settlers began to spread throughout Northern Europe since Denmark and England were connected at the time. Sea levels were on the rise, so many individuals began to settle near the water for fishing and hunting. Burial of the dead became a significant tradition for the settlers in prehistoric Denmark in order to honor their ancestors. The extravagance of the burial was dependent on one's social class and status. Age also played a huge role in how an individual would be buried. For example, if it was a child, then they would be buried with traces of ochre.
Neolithic Era
The introduction of agriculture and domestication of animals. The settlers began to domesticate cattle, pigs, and sheep. Wheat and barley were dominant agricultural crops in this region. Dominating the landscape, the stone grave monuments were an established ceremonial presence. This movement or trend became known as the Single Grave Culture where graves would be dug on low mounds, known as barrows, to hold and preserve the dead. Burial traditions increased in significance during this time. Depending one one's status, he or she would be buried with clay pots and flint axes. Flint axes were crucial for the economic and social aspect of society for sacrifice, honor, and determination of one's wealth.
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age began in 1700 BC. The discovery of bronze led to more durable weapons, tools, and jewelry. Bronze replaced stone, and it was widely used in flint axes and swords. The distinction of gender began to slowly appear , especially in burial proceedings. For women, they would be buried with a belt plate and their jewelry whereas men would be buried with their swords and other weapons, such as shields.
Religious wise, the horse symbolized power during the Bronze Age. This was the first period that the horse was brought in. The horse and sun served as sacred religious symbols; they were part of the Sun Chariot sculpture, which shows that the sun's journey is powered by the horse.
The lur was developed during the Bronze Age, which added to development of music. The lur is a musical wind instrument made from bronze. The lur produces a pleasant yet rattling sound by blowing into the mouthpiece of this instrument.
Iron Age
Early Iron Age
The early Iron Age began in 500 BC. This period marked the establishment of small fenced villages. Iron was a crucial metal that was discovered during this time. As mentioned in the Bronze Age tab, iron was used for weapons and tools. In addition, iron was used to craft a wagon, which led to the development of roads and transportation networks throughout Northern Europe. A new metal--silver-- was also discovered during the birth of Christ era. It was widely used for decorative and religious items, such as pots, glass, and religious sculptures. The Danish people established a trading network with the Romans where the Romans would provide the Danish with silver. The trading network with the Romans allowed the Danish to branch out their trading networks with other neighboring states, such as Norway.
Roman influence shaped the social way of life in prehistoric Denmark. The Danish established an organized army for the first time. In addition, there is an initial presence of an organized government, the monarchy, that ruled the Danish. The first known recorded king of Danes is believed to be King Hugleik from the Swedish House of Yngling.
In 200 AD, the Danish developed a written Germanic language known as the Rune.
Late Iron Age
The Late Iron Age took place during 400 AD to 800 AD. Due to the contact with the Romans, the Danish incorporated Roman and their own (Nordic) culture into the religion and traditions. Many historical artifacts held a mixture of Roman and Nordic symbols. For example, the Golden Horns consists of both Roman and Nordic religious symbols. In addition, the Danish usually did not have sculptures or pictures of their deities ; however, because of Roman influence, the Danish began to sculpt their deities.
One of the largest and bustling settlements during this time was Gudme. Gudme was a crucial settlement for farming and trading. This settlement was the center of exporting jewelry to the Romans.
If you want to learn more and see some images, go ahead and download the Denmark Prehistory guide.
Paleolithic Era
The warmer climate led to reindeer appearing in the land, which led to reindeer hunters to hunt them for meat. This led to the establishment of a hunting-gathering lifestyle for the settlers. To catch their prey, the settlers created bows and arrows as their weapons.
The settlers also cultivated a religious system known as shamanism. This belief system claims that forces and sprits control nature.
Mesolithic Era
The Mesolithic Era began in 9300 BCE. Settlers began to spread throughout Northern Europe since Denmark and England were connected at the time. Sea levels were on the rise, so many individuals began to settle near the water for fishing and hunting. Burial of the dead became a significant tradition for the settlers in prehistoric Denmark in order to honor their ancestors. The extravagance of the burial was dependent on one's social class and status. Age also played a huge role in how an individual would be buried. For example, if it was a child, then they would be buried with traces of ochre.
Neolithic Era
The introduction of agriculture and domestication of animals. The settlers began to domesticate cattle, pigs, and sheep. Wheat and barley were dominant agricultural crops in this region. Dominating the landscape, the stone grave monuments were an established ceremonial presence. This movement or trend became known as the Single Grave Culture where graves would be dug on low mounds, known as barrows, to hold and preserve the dead. Burial traditions increased in significance during this time. Depending one one's status, he or she would be buried with clay pots and flint axes. Flint axes were crucial for the economic and social aspect of society for sacrifice, honor, and determination of one's wealth.
Bronze Age
The Bronze Age began in 1700 BC. The discovery of bronze led to more durable weapons, tools, and jewelry. Bronze replaced stone, and it was widely used in flint axes and swords. The distinction of gender began to slowly appear , especially in burial proceedings. For women, they would be buried with a belt plate and their jewelry whereas men would be buried with their swords and other weapons, such as shields.
Religious wise, the horse symbolized power during the Bronze Age. This was the first period that the horse was brought in. The horse and sun served as sacred religious symbols; they were part of the Sun Chariot sculpture, which shows that the sun's journey is powered by the horse.
The lur was developed during the Bronze Age, which added to development of music. The lur is a musical wind instrument made from bronze. The lur produces a pleasant yet rattling sound by blowing into the mouthpiece of this instrument.
Iron Age
Early Iron Age
The early Iron Age began in 500 BC. This period marked the establishment of small fenced villages. Iron was a crucial metal that was discovered during this time. As mentioned in the Bronze Age tab, iron was used for weapons and tools. In addition, iron was used to craft a wagon, which led to the development of roads and transportation networks throughout Northern Europe. A new metal--silver-- was also discovered during the birth of Christ era. It was widely used for decorative and religious items, such as pots, glass, and religious sculptures. The Danish people established a trading network with the Romans where the Romans would provide the Danish with silver. The trading network with the Romans allowed the Danish to branch out their trading networks with other neighboring states, such as Norway.
Roman influence shaped the social way of life in prehistoric Denmark. The Danish established an organized army for the first time. In addition, there is an initial presence of an organized government, the monarchy, that ruled the Danish. The first known recorded king of Danes is believed to be King Hugleik from the Swedish House of Yngling.
In 200 AD, the Danish developed a written Germanic language known as the Rune.
Late Iron Age
The Late Iron Age took place during 400 AD to 800 AD. Due to the contact with the Romans, the Danish incorporated Roman and their own (Nordic) culture into the religion and traditions. Many historical artifacts held a mixture of Roman and Nordic symbols. For example, the Golden Horns consists of both Roman and Nordic religious symbols. In addition, the Danish usually did not have sculptures or pictures of their deities ; however, because of Roman influence, the Danish began to sculpt their deities.
One of the largest and bustling settlements during this time was Gudme. Gudme was a crucial settlement for farming and trading. This settlement was the center of exporting jewelry to the Romans.
If you want to learn more and see some images, go ahead and download the Denmark Prehistory guide.
VIKING AND MIDDLE AGES
Viking Age
Vikings began to take control of Denmark in 8th century AD. They originated from rural area , but became huge seafarers by residing in coastal and fishing towns in Scandinavia. The Vikings were present from Northern Europe to Northern England. Territories in Northwest Europe, such as present-day Yorkshire, were invaded by the Vikings. Vikings were also known for creating a centralized country by establishing a religion and kingdom.
Family Life
The average life expectancy for a Viking was usually in his or her forties. Also, high infant mortality rate was common among the Vikings. In terms of women, they primarily served as caretakers and housewives. However, women did have more freedom and independence as they had the right to divorce and work on selling their own handicrafts. Children also began to work at a young age to help support the family and the farm. Typically, multiple Viking families would reside together in longhouses.
Religion
Previously, Vikings practiced polytheism by paying respect to the Norse gods, such as Odin, Loki, and Thor. The main belief in their religion was the coexistence between nature and humans. Vikings practiced sacrifice and honored the Gods through their rituals.
Christianity was gaining traction throughout Europe. Many missionaries began to come into the Viking kingdom. As a result, Christianity began to dominate the religion of the Vikings. At first, Vikings were reluctant, but ended up converting due to the trade contacts they had with other European nations. Churches, usually made from wood, were built throughout the kingdom.
Viking Rule
Vikings had a monarchy with a king ruling the various tribes in the kingdom by working with chiefs and aristocratic leaders. The chiefs served as a head for the different towns and tribes and were in charge of maintaining tradition, such as playing a role in cult celebrations.
For the middle class, it consisted mostly of farmers. The lower class would be slaves and peasants.
The Viking monarchy began with the reign of Harald Bluetooth in 965 AD. This marked the first time in Danish history that His rule extended all the way to present day Sweden. Because the Vikings were avid conquerors, the Vikings expanded into northern England, leading to Harald's son Sweyn Forkbeard to become the first ruler of England. Later on, Sweyn Forkbeard's son, Cnut the Great, expanded rule further in England. England was divided into 4 zones: Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Cnut the Great is known for being an ardent supporter of the church as he offered numerous protections to church officials.
Expeditions
Viking attacks were frequent and planned. Their raids were usually done in surprise as their main goal was to capture the people of the land for slaves as well as additional land to be added to their empire. Viking expeditions were conducted because Vikings wanted to expand their trading network. They traded with countries in the West as well as countries in the East, such as countries in the Arab and Africa region. They traded with the Arabs for silver.
Because of their advanced sea navigation skills, Vikings were able to expand into other territories outside of Europe, such as Greenland. Erik the Red was the first person to arrive in Greenland. They were the first group of Europeans to settle in North America, specifically in Newfoundland.
Middle Ages
Catholicism began to grow in power after the downfall of the Middle Ages. The power and social distinction among the social classes also grew due to the rise of feudalism. This led to upper class families to hold more land and gain more political power. As a result, the peasants and lower class individuals had to work in the upper class families' lands to earn money and have a home to stay. Trade continued to flourish, but this led to many wars between Denmark and their trading partners.
Kingdom
Sweyn Estridson, Canute the Great's nephew, took over the throne in 1047. During this time, the Danish royal kingdom was experiencing inconsistent rule because kings were being assassinated and causing conflicts with other countries. In 1146, power had been restored and balanced with the arrival of King Valdemar I. Valdemar I is known for his reforms, such as church approval for hereditary rule, ending Slavs' interference over Danish trade ,and helping establish present-day Copenhagen.
Valdemar II expanded his rule in 1202 by invading countries in Eastern Europe. The feudal system was implemented in the country. His rule also led to the establishment of an early version of a constitution. Later on, Christopher II faced tumultuous events and chaos throughout his rule because of the revolts and wars happening. Valdemar IV rose up to power and restored the monarchy in 1340.
His daughter, Margaret I, established the Kalmar Union, which was a political union between Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Faroe Islands, and other Danish territories.
Kalmar Union
The Kalmar Union was established in 1397 to counter the power of the Germanic trade guild, the Hanseatic League. The Hanseatic League was gaining power and attraction over the Danish government. King Eric, the nephew of Queen Margaret I, began to establish taxes to generate money from ships entering the Baltic Sea. However, there was a conflict between the countries in the Kalmar Union, which led to the downfall of the Kalmar Union in 1523.
Vikings began to take control of Denmark in 8th century AD. They originated from rural area , but became huge seafarers by residing in coastal and fishing towns in Scandinavia. The Vikings were present from Northern Europe to Northern England. Territories in Northwest Europe, such as present-day Yorkshire, were invaded by the Vikings. Vikings were also known for creating a centralized country by establishing a religion and kingdom.
Family Life
The average life expectancy for a Viking was usually in his or her forties. Also, high infant mortality rate was common among the Vikings. In terms of women, they primarily served as caretakers and housewives. However, women did have more freedom and independence as they had the right to divorce and work on selling their own handicrafts. Children also began to work at a young age to help support the family and the farm. Typically, multiple Viking families would reside together in longhouses.
Religion
Previously, Vikings practiced polytheism by paying respect to the Norse gods, such as Odin, Loki, and Thor. The main belief in their religion was the coexistence between nature and humans. Vikings practiced sacrifice and honored the Gods through their rituals.
Christianity was gaining traction throughout Europe. Many missionaries began to come into the Viking kingdom. As a result, Christianity began to dominate the religion of the Vikings. At first, Vikings were reluctant, but ended up converting due to the trade contacts they had with other European nations. Churches, usually made from wood, were built throughout the kingdom.
Viking Rule
Vikings had a monarchy with a king ruling the various tribes in the kingdom by working with chiefs and aristocratic leaders. The chiefs served as a head for the different towns and tribes and were in charge of maintaining tradition, such as playing a role in cult celebrations.
For the middle class, it consisted mostly of farmers. The lower class would be slaves and peasants.
The Viking monarchy began with the reign of Harald Bluetooth in 965 AD. This marked the first time in Danish history that His rule extended all the way to present day Sweden. Because the Vikings were avid conquerors, the Vikings expanded into northern England, leading to Harald's son Sweyn Forkbeard to become the first ruler of England. Later on, Sweyn Forkbeard's son, Cnut the Great, expanded rule further in England. England was divided into 4 zones: Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Cnut the Great is known for being an ardent supporter of the church as he offered numerous protections to church officials.
Expeditions
Viking attacks were frequent and planned. Their raids were usually done in surprise as their main goal was to capture the people of the land for slaves as well as additional land to be added to their empire. Viking expeditions were conducted because Vikings wanted to expand their trading network. They traded with countries in the West as well as countries in the East, such as countries in the Arab and Africa region. They traded with the Arabs for silver.
Because of their advanced sea navigation skills, Vikings were able to expand into other territories outside of Europe, such as Greenland. Erik the Red was the first person to arrive in Greenland. They were the first group of Europeans to settle in North America, specifically in Newfoundland.
Middle Ages
Catholicism began to grow in power after the downfall of the Middle Ages. The power and social distinction among the social classes also grew due to the rise of feudalism. This led to upper class families to hold more land and gain more political power. As a result, the peasants and lower class individuals had to work in the upper class families' lands to earn money and have a home to stay. Trade continued to flourish, but this led to many wars between Denmark and their trading partners.
Kingdom
Sweyn Estridson, Canute the Great's nephew, took over the throne in 1047. During this time, the Danish royal kingdom was experiencing inconsistent rule because kings were being assassinated and causing conflicts with other countries. In 1146, power had been restored and balanced with the arrival of King Valdemar I. Valdemar I is known for his reforms, such as church approval for hereditary rule, ending Slavs' interference over Danish trade ,and helping establish present-day Copenhagen.
Valdemar II expanded his rule in 1202 by invading countries in Eastern Europe. The feudal system was implemented in the country. His rule also led to the establishment of an early version of a constitution. Later on, Christopher II faced tumultuous events and chaos throughout his rule because of the revolts and wars happening. Valdemar IV rose up to power and restored the monarchy in 1340.
His daughter, Margaret I, established the Kalmar Union, which was a political union between Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Faroe Islands, and other Danish territories.
Kalmar Union
The Kalmar Union was established in 1397 to counter the power of the Germanic trade guild, the Hanseatic League. The Hanseatic League was gaining power and attraction over the Danish government. King Eric, the nephew of Queen Margaret I, began to establish taxes to generate money from ships entering the Baltic Sea. However, there was a conflict between the countries in the Kalmar Union, which led to the downfall of the Kalmar Union in 1523.
DANISH COLONIAL EMPIRE
Danish Religious Conflict
The Reformation spread to Denmark, leading Christopher II, a Catholic priest, to exile. He was eventually replaced by Frederick Duke of Schleswig Holstein in 1523.
It did not result in too much violence from the switch of Catholicism to Protestant. The official language of the church still remained Danish instead of Latin.
The reformation led to Denmark and Norway to be in an alliance together. Both fought in the Thirty Year's War in 1625. The war is about the conflict between Protestantism and Catholicism, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. However, as a result, Sweden rises to power.
Denmark's Fight
Due to the controlling power of Denmark in the Kalmar Union, there was a conflict between Sweden and Finland. They ended up seceding. Denmark wanted Sweden to come and enter the union, which led to the Kalmar War in 1611 by King Christian IV.
The army was small but not too powerful. However, Denmark had a strong navy. The end result of the war was that Denmark did not gain any territory.
In 1613, Peace of Knarod made Sweden pay a million dollars to keep their territory that Denmark wanted, which was paid in two years.
Denmark's Colonization
Because Denmark lost territory in the Scandinavian area, they focused on colonizing on the Eastern hemisphere.
Denmark began to establish colonies in North America, Asia, and Western Africa to establish trade. The Danish were known for building forts in Western Africa to help with trade for goods and slavery. Some slaves worked in the fields of Danish Caribbean colonies (St. Croix and St. Thomas), and the Danish West Indies produced sugar.
Slaves in the Danish colonies would tend to revolt. A well-known rebellion in 1733 in island St. Jan, led to slaves gaining control of the island for more than a year.
Denmark was the first country to remove the transatlantic slave trade (no more importation of slaves) through the 1792 bill Forordning om Negerhandelen. However, slave owners in the Danish colonies could still own slaves.
On 1848, slaves got their freedom back. They ended up being laborers for the plantations they had worked for.
The Danish were heavily involved in Asia. Tranquebar – or Tharangampadi, located in Southern India, served as a Danish trading post. They built Fort Dansborg.
In the settlement, there was a cultural fusion of Indian and Danish culture with churches and colonial style housing. Protestant missionaries were common, such as Bartholomæus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plütschau. This attracted individuals of lower class to move up socially.
Today the town is a medium sized demographic populated with Hindus, Muslims, and Christians.
Denmark's Monarchy
Denmark is known for one of the earliest and oldest forms of monarchy. In 1660, it began with Frederick III's reign. It was the
reign of absolute monarchy, which means the king or queen has sole control over their people and government. This resulted in more taxes paid.
However, this was a solution to get their kingdom together because of the defeat they faced with a war with Sweden. It was first written in the Constitution Kongeloven, known as King's Law.
The Council of the State is there to check the power of the king and helped handle domestic and state affairs. The clergy also worked with the royalty
Absolute monarchy was abolished in 1848, marking the end of Christian VIII's reign.
Denmark War
In 1534, there was an uprising by Catholic peasants led by Skipper Clement. Christian III, the monarch at this time, rose to power and sent troops to suppress the rebellion. Skipper Clement was later executed.
In 1643, there was a sudden invasion of Denmark conducted by Swedish forces. This is known as the Torstenson War, which led to a disastrous loss for the Danish-Norway kingdom when Netherlands teamed up with Sweden. The Second treaty of Brömsebro (1645) leads to Denmark seceding some of it Norwegian territory to Sweden. Danish monarch Christian IV became known as the architect of the Danish empire (he had one of the longest terms).
Another major war was fought, known as the Scania War in 1675, a war between Sweden, Denmark, and France. The Danes wanted to get their original territory back. The war eventually ended in 1679 with a treaty of Fontainebleau , and Sweden still got to keep their territory.
The Great Northern Wars began to take place in the beginning of the 18th century. Denmark was successful in gaining some of its initial territory from Sweden. It was a turning point for Sweden because Sweden lost its power. Denmark formed an anti-Swedish committee with Russia and Poland.
The Russians wanted to gain control over the monarchy, so they supported the Danish. Treaty of Fredriksborg made Sweden give up some of its land (Holstein-Gottorp) has to pay taxes.
The Napoleon Wars took place in early 1800s. Denmark previously remained neutral. English army invaded Copenhagen using fire rockets, forcing Danish to surrender their troops to English. They fought alongside the English and ended up loosing the war, and went bankrupt in 1813. This ended the Denmark-Norway alliance. However, Denmark continued to rule in India, Iceland, Greenland, Ghana, and West Indies.
The Reformation spread to Denmark, leading Christopher II, a Catholic priest, to exile. He was eventually replaced by Frederick Duke of Schleswig Holstein in 1523.
It did not result in too much violence from the switch of Catholicism to Protestant. The official language of the church still remained Danish instead of Latin.
The reformation led to Denmark and Norway to be in an alliance together. Both fought in the Thirty Year's War in 1625. The war is about the conflict between Protestantism and Catholicism, which ended in 1648 with the Peace of Westphalia. However, as a result, Sweden rises to power.
Denmark's Fight
Due to the controlling power of Denmark in the Kalmar Union, there was a conflict between Sweden and Finland. They ended up seceding. Denmark wanted Sweden to come and enter the union, which led to the Kalmar War in 1611 by King Christian IV.
The army was small but not too powerful. However, Denmark had a strong navy. The end result of the war was that Denmark did not gain any territory.
In 1613, Peace of Knarod made Sweden pay a million dollars to keep their territory that Denmark wanted, which was paid in two years.
Denmark's Colonization
Because Denmark lost territory in the Scandinavian area, they focused on colonizing on the Eastern hemisphere.
Denmark began to establish colonies in North America, Asia, and Western Africa to establish trade. The Danish were known for building forts in Western Africa to help with trade for goods and slavery. Some slaves worked in the fields of Danish Caribbean colonies (St. Croix and St. Thomas), and the Danish West Indies produced sugar.
Slaves in the Danish colonies would tend to revolt. A well-known rebellion in 1733 in island St. Jan, led to slaves gaining control of the island for more than a year.
Denmark was the first country to remove the transatlantic slave trade (no more importation of slaves) through the 1792 bill Forordning om Negerhandelen. However, slave owners in the Danish colonies could still own slaves.
On 1848, slaves got their freedom back. They ended up being laborers for the plantations they had worked for.
The Danish were heavily involved in Asia. Tranquebar – or Tharangampadi, located in Southern India, served as a Danish trading post. They built Fort Dansborg.
In the settlement, there was a cultural fusion of Indian and Danish culture with churches and colonial style housing. Protestant missionaries were common, such as Bartholomæus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plütschau. This attracted individuals of lower class to move up socially.
Today the town is a medium sized demographic populated with Hindus, Muslims, and Christians.
Denmark's Monarchy
Denmark is known for one of the earliest and oldest forms of monarchy. In 1660, it began with Frederick III's reign. It was the
reign of absolute monarchy, which means the king or queen has sole control over their people and government. This resulted in more taxes paid.
However, this was a solution to get their kingdom together because of the defeat they faced with a war with Sweden. It was first written in the Constitution Kongeloven, known as King's Law.
The Council of the State is there to check the power of the king and helped handle domestic and state affairs. The clergy also worked with the royalty
Absolute monarchy was abolished in 1848, marking the end of Christian VIII's reign.
Denmark War
In 1534, there was an uprising by Catholic peasants led by Skipper Clement. Christian III, the monarch at this time, rose to power and sent troops to suppress the rebellion. Skipper Clement was later executed.
In 1643, there was a sudden invasion of Denmark conducted by Swedish forces. This is known as the Torstenson War, which led to a disastrous loss for the Danish-Norway kingdom when Netherlands teamed up with Sweden. The Second treaty of Brömsebro (1645) leads to Denmark seceding some of it Norwegian territory to Sweden. Danish monarch Christian IV became known as the architect of the Danish empire (he had one of the longest terms).
Another major war was fought, known as the Scania War in 1675, a war between Sweden, Denmark, and France. The Danes wanted to get their original territory back. The war eventually ended in 1679 with a treaty of Fontainebleau , and Sweden still got to keep their territory.
The Great Northern Wars began to take place in the beginning of the 18th century. Denmark was successful in gaining some of its initial territory from Sweden. It was a turning point for Sweden because Sweden lost its power. Denmark formed an anti-Swedish committee with Russia and Poland.
The Russians wanted to gain control over the monarchy, so they supported the Danish. Treaty of Fredriksborg made Sweden give up some of its land (Holstein-Gottorp) has to pay taxes.
The Napoleon Wars took place in early 1800s. Denmark previously remained neutral. English army invaded Copenhagen using fire rockets, forcing Danish to surrender their troops to English. They fought alongside the English and ended up loosing the war, and went bankrupt in 1813. This ended the Denmark-Norway alliance. However, Denmark continued to rule in India, Iceland, Greenland, Ghana, and West Indies.
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